(2) Why was the rise of the medieval towns significant?
The resurgence and growth of medieval towns starting around the 11th century marked a profound structural shift in European history, transitioning society away from rigid feudalism toward modern economic and political systems. One of these shifts was a shift to a money based economy, where towns replaced self-sufficient agricultural manors with market economies. Another shift was the rise of the middle class, a new social class of merchants, artisans, and craftspeople. They held wealth based on capital rather than land ownership, disrupting the traditional feudal hierarchy of noble lords, and serfs.

(3) How can we account for western Europe’s sustained economic success?
Western Europe’s long term economic rise was not driven by a single factor, but rather by a combination of agricultural, institutional, geographical, and technological catalysts. Some agricultural innovations such as the heavy iron plow, the three field crop rotation system, and the widespread use of horses equipped with padded collars created massive food surpluses. Another breakthrough was the institutional and property rights development. The breakdown of feudalism led to legal protections for private property, enforceability of commercial contracts, and rule of law.

(3) Describe the main principles of just-war theory.
One of the main principles of the just war theory is that before a country can morally go to conflict, they first must fulfill several criteria. One criteria is having a just cause; Force may only be used to correct a grave public evil, such as self defense against aggression, or protecting innocent life. Another criteria is the competent authority, where war can only be initialized by a well known public authority, not your random joe. Another criteria is the right intention for the war. The ultimate objective of the war must be to re-establish a just peace.
(4) In what fundamental way did Duns Scotus and William of Ockham challenge the position of Thomas Aquinas?
The fundamental way Duns Sotus and William of Ockham challenged the position of Thomas Aquinas was that Thomas Aquinas believed God’s intellect is primary, whereas they believed that God’s will was primary, because if you focused on his intelligence that would limit his omnipotence. Another way they challenged Aquinas was that he believed in Aristotle’s theology that “universals” (concepts like “whiteness”) have a real objective existence outside of the mind, embedded in individual things. Sotus and Ockham introduced the concept of “thisness”, shifting focus toward the unique individuality of things.

Answer three of the following questions:

(1) What kinds of developments occurred during the renaissance of the twelfth century?
One of the developments was the translation movement, where Western scholars rediscovered long lost Greek and Arabic texts, particularly the works of Aristotle, Ptolemy, Euclid and Islamic philosophers like Averroes. Another development was the birth of Scholasticism, which was a new philosophical method which sought to harmonize Christian theology with classical reason and logic, altering how theology and philosophy were studied.

(2) Discuss the origins and features of the university system in the High Middle Ages.
One of the origins of the medieval universities was the Bologna model which operated in Italy, where the students hired and paid the professors, setting the rules for the curriculum. Another origin is the Paris model, where the corporation of teachers ran the institution and dictated the rules.

(4) Write a brief overview of the life and work of Thomas Aquinas.
St. Thomas Aquinas was an Italian Dominican friar, philosopher, and theologian. He was widely regarded as the greatest intellectual heavyweight of high Scholasticism. He was born to an Italian noble family, where he shocked his relitives by choosing to join the Dominican Order, which was a new Mendicant order of beggars. He went on to study under Albert the Great in Paris and Cologne.

Writing Assignment: Answer three of the following questions:

(1) What did the Albigensians believe?
The Albigensians had a core belief that there were two opposing gods, a good god (who created the spiritual realm) and a bad god (who created the material world). Because they viewed the material world as corrupted, they believed that human souls were spirits trapped in inherently sinful flesh.

(2) Describe the mendicant orders of the thirteenth century.
The Mendicant orders were Catholic religous orders founded in the early 13th century that revolutionized the traditional monastic lifestyle. Unlike traditional monks who lived in isolation, mendicants rook strict vows of absolute poverty, where they refused to own property or land. Another difference is that instead of retreating from society, mendicants lived as friars in major cities and towns. Their view was “not to live for themselves but to serve others.” They relied entirely on the charity and goodwill of the people they served, begging for food and shelter.

(3) What was the significance of the Magna Carta?
The Magna Carta is a charter of rights agreed to by King John of England in 1215. It was initially drafted as a peace treaty to settle a rebellion by his barons and bishops over heavy taxation and royal overreach. It established the legal principal that no one is above the law, not even the king. Prior to the Magna Carta, the king’s word was absolute, but the charter bound the crown to govern within established legal boundaries.

Writing assignment: Answer two of the following questions.

(1) What are some common misconceptions about the Crusades, and why are they incorrect?
One misconception is that the crusaders were only going on the crusade for wealth. This is quite opposite from the truth, as going on a crusade was a large financial burden. The equipment for the crusade was very costly. The real motivation for going on crusade is very religious, trying to defend Christian landmarks as well as recieving forgivness for their sins. Another misconception is that the crusades were unprovoked. The reality is the Byzantine Empire was losing territory to the Turks. The crusades were partly to recover Christian lands.

(2) Based on the different versions of Pope Urban II’s speech, discuss the main themes in the Pope’s remarks.
One of the themes in Pope Urban II’s speech was the suffering of the Byzantine Christians at the hands of the Turks. He described the desecration of churches, the occupation of Christian lands, and the torture of pilgrims. This helped create a sense of urgent universal Christian solidarity, framing the military expedition as an act of charity. Another theme was the appeal to the European nobility and knightly class. At the time, Western Europe was plagued by feudal warfare. The Pope called on these knights to stop fighting one another, and redirect their resources to a more holy cause.