Answer three of the following questions:

(1) What kinds of developments occurred during the renaissance of the twelfth century?
One of the developments was the translation movement, where Western scholars rediscovered long lost Greek and Arabic texts, particularly the works of Aristotle, Ptolemy, Euclid and Islamic philosophers like Averroes. Another development was the birth of Scholasticism, which was a new philosophical method which sought to harmonize Christian theology with classical reason and logic, altering how theology and philosophy were studied.

(2) Discuss the origins and features of the university system in the High Middle Ages.
One of the origins of the medieval universities was the Bologna model which operated in Italy, where the students hired and paid the professors, setting the rules for the curriculum. Another origin is the Paris model, where the corporation of teachers ran the institution and dictated the rules.

(4) Write a brief overview of the life and work of Thomas Aquinas.
St. Thomas Aquinas was an Italian Dominican friar, philosopher, and theologian. He was widely regarded as the greatest intellectual heavyweight of high Scholasticism. He was born to an Italian noble family, where he shocked his relitives by choosing to join the Dominican Order, which was a new Mendicant order of beggars. He went on to study under Albert the Great in Paris and Cologne.

Writing Assignment: Answer three of the following questions:

(1) What did the Albigensians believe?
The Albigensians had a core belief that there were two opposing gods, a good god (who created the spiritual realm) and a bad god (who created the material world). Because they viewed the material world as corrupted, they believed that human souls were spirits trapped in inherently sinful flesh.

(2) Describe the mendicant orders of the thirteenth century.
The Mendicant orders were Catholic religous orders founded in the early 13th century that revolutionized the traditional monastic lifestyle. Unlike traditional monks who lived in isolation, mendicants rook strict vows of absolute poverty, where they refused to own property or land. Another difference is that instead of retreating from society, mendicants lived as friars in major cities and towns. Their view was “not to live for themselves but to serve others.” They relied entirely on the charity and goodwill of the people they served, begging for food and shelter.

(3) What was the significance of the Magna Carta?
The Magna Carta is a charter of rights agreed to by King John of England in 1215. It was initially drafted as a peace treaty to settle a rebellion by his barons and bishops over heavy taxation and royal overreach. It established the legal principal that no one is above the law, not even the king. Prior to the Magna Carta, the king’s word was absolute, but the charter bound the crown to govern within established legal boundaries.

Writing assignment: Answer two of the following questions.

(1) What are some common misconceptions about the Crusades, and why are they incorrect?
One misconception is that the crusaders were only going on the crusade for wealth. This is quite opposite from the truth, as going on a crusade was a large financial burden. The equipment for the crusade was very costly. The real motivation for going on crusade is very religious, trying to defend Christian landmarks as well as recieving forgivness for their sins. Another misconception is that the crusades were unprovoked. The reality is the Byzantine Empire was losing territory to the Turks. The crusades were partly to recover Christian lands.

(2) Based on the different versions of Pope Urban II’s speech, discuss the main themes in the Pope’s remarks.
One of the themes in Pope Urban II’s speech was the suffering of the Byzantine Christians at the hands of the Turks. He described the desecration of churches, the occupation of Christian lands, and the torture of pilgrims. This helped create a sense of urgent universal Christian solidarity, framing the military expedition as an act of charity. Another theme was the appeal to the European nobility and knightly class. At the time, Western Europe was plagued by feudal warfare. The Pope called on these knights to stop fighting one another, and redirect their resources to a more holy cause.

(1) What was the Great Schism? What factors brought it on?
The Great Schism is the event that permanentaly divided Chalcedonian Christianity  into the Roman Catholic Church in the West and the Eastern Orthodox Curch in the East. The Schism was not caused by a single event, but rather a combination of smaller factors, such as the Filioque Controversey, where the Western church added the latin word Filioque to the Nicine Creed, which the Eastern church disagreed with. Another factor was the papal supremacy. The pope in Rome claimed supreme authority over the entire global church, which upset the patriarchs in the east.
(3) What are the sacraments?
Baptism is the washing away of sins. Confirmation is the sealing of the Holy Spirit. Eucharist, or communion is the consuming of bread and wine, the body and blood of Jesus Christ. Penance is the confession of sins to a priest to receive forgiveness. Anointing of the sick is the healing and blessing of those who are sick or dying. Holy orders is the sacrament of ordination of bishops, priests, and deacons into the clergy. Marriage is the sacrament of the holy union between a man and a woman.
(4) What is an indulgence?
In the theology of the Roman Catholic Church, an indulgence in the full or partial forgiveness of the temporal punishment still owed for sins that have already been forgiven through confession. Indulgences are usually earned through good deeds, such as prayer or fasting.

(1) What were the problems besetting the Church in the tenth and eleventh centuries? What was “moderate reform”?
In the tenth and eleventh centuries, the Church was plagued by three primary issues that ruined its spiritual authority. The first problem was simony; the buying and selling of offices, where wealthy families would often purchase bishoprics or abbacies to ensure their children held power. The second problem was lay investiture; the practice where secular rulers (kings, dukes or lords) appointed church officials and bestowed upon them the symbols of their spiritual office (the ring and staff), which made the clergy beholden to secular rulers rather than the Pope.
Moderate reform emerged as the initial, pragmatic approach to these problems. Rather than attempting to strip secular rulers of all authority, “moderate reformers” sought to eliminate the worst abuses—specifically simony—while working in partnership with emperors and kings to enforce stricter moral discipline among the clergy.

(2) Describe the events that took place during the conflict between Pope Gregory VII and Henry IV. What was at stake?
The conflict between Pope Gregory VII and Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV was a watershed moment in European history, fundamentally changing the balance of power between Church and State. Gregory VII was a radical reformer who believed in the freedom of the church. He issued the Dictatus Papae (1075), which claimed the Pope had the authority to depose emperors.

(3) What was Christendom?
Christendom refers to the medieval concept of a unified, transnational community of Christian believers across Europe, governed by both a spiritual head (the Pope) and a secular leader.