Archives for September 2026

(1) What do you think is the central point of the essay you read by Mario Vargas Llosa?

I think the central point was the use of literature as an instrument of freedom. Vargas frequently argues that literature is essential for a free society because it starts critical thinking, exposes the flaws of authoritarianism, and also creates a healthy dissatisfaction with reality.

(2) What is the truth of the matter regarding the claim that people in the Middle Ages thought the earth was flat?

The belief that people thought that the earth was flat in the middle ages is a modern myth. Educated people through the Middle Ages knew that the earth was spherical. Greek philosophers such as Aristotle established the spherical model of the earth. The myth was started in the 19th century by writers like Washington Irving and anti-religious historians who sought to portray the Middle Ages as an era of blind faith and ignorance compared to modern scientific enlightenment.

(1) How were the ideas of Marsilius of Padua evident in Louis of Bavaria’s conflict with Pope John XXII?

Marsilius wrote the Defensor Pacis in 1324, which argued that supreme authority in both church and state rests with the people, not the pope. He said that the papacy should have no temporal jurisdiction and that the pope should be subject to a general council of the Church. Louis IV applied these when he clashed with Pope John XXII over imperial election rights, Louis put Marsilus’s theories into practice. Louis ignored his papal excommunication, marched into Rome in 1328, and had himself crowned Emperor.

(2) What can we say about the condition of the Catholic Church on the eve of the Protestant Reformation?

On the eve of the Protestant Reformation, the Catholic Church presented a paradoxical picture of widespread institutional corruption. There was institutional weakness where high level offices were plagued by absentees, people holding multiple church offices at once, and financial abuses. Lower clergy were also commonly poorly educated, impoverished, and unable to properly instruct parishioners in Latin liturgy.

(3) Discuss the three key developments in the process of political centralization in Spain.

One of the three key developments in the process of political centralization in Spain was the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella in 1469. The union of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon united the two largest kingdoms on the Iberian Peninsula, laying the groundwork for a united Spanish state. The second key development is the completion of the Reconquista in 1492. The fall of Granada ended over 700 years of Muslim rule in the region, which gave the geographical and political control over to the Catholic Monarchs. The third and final key development is the Religious and Administrative Uniformity. The establishment of the Spanish Inqusition in 1478 enforced strict religious orthodoxy, using faith as an instrument of state authority, and removing non-christian minorities.

week 34

(1) Discuss the rise and fall of Girolamo Savonarola.

Girolamo Savonarola was a Dominican friar who gained immense popularity in Florence during the 1490’s. He delivered apocalyptic sermons denouncing the corruption of the clergy and the secular moral decline under the Medici family. Savonarola started to decline because of his extreme measures, economic hardship, and fierce attacks on Pope Alexander VI. He was excommunicated, and in 1498 he was arrested, tortured, convicted of heresy and executed by hanging and burning.

(2) Discuss the Italian War of 1494-1498.

The war of 1494-1498 was started when Charles VIII of France invaded Italy in 1494 to assert a dynastic claim over the kingdom of Naples. Charles VIII marched through Italy with a formidable army and heavy artillery, taking Naples with minimal resistance in early 1495. Italy panicked because of French power. Major Italian states allied with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire to form the league of Venice. The League of Venice cut off Charles VIII’s army as he retreated north at the battle of Fornovo. While Charles escaped back to France, his remaining garrisons in Naples were quickly defeated.

(3) Discuss some of the significant aspects of the reign of Louis XI.

Louis XI ruled France from 1461 to 1483 and played a crucial part in laying the foundation of absolute monarchy. He helped centralize royal power, where he systematically tore down the power of rebellious feudal lords, centralizing power around the French crown. Another significant aspect of Louis XI’s reign was how he defeated Burgundy. Charles the Bold was the Duke of Burgundy, and after Charles died at the battle of Nancy in 1477, Louis annexed major parts of Burgundy into France.

week 33

(1) What were some of the problems associated with the Renaissance papacy?

Some of the problems that were associated with the Renaissance papacy were corruption and nepotism. Popes such as Alexander VI used their position to secure wealth, land, and power for their family members. Another problem is simony and sale of indulgences, where spiritual favors and church offices were frequently bought and sold to finance lavish art, architecture, and military campaigns. Moral laxity was another issue, where many popes and high clergy lived openly lavish lifestyles, fathered illegitimate children, and ignored traditional vows of asceticism.

(3) We normally think of three people in particular as having been the key artists of the High Renaissance. Who were they? Discuss one major work from each.

Leonardo da Vinci is one of the most popular Renaissance artists, making art such as the Vitruvian Man. He was also an engineer, making very popular inventions such as the aerial screw, and other inventions attempting to make man fly.

Michelangelo is another very popular Renaissance artist, making many famous sculptures such as the collection of sculptures of Madonna and child, and the painting of the Sistine Chapel ceiling.

The third key artist is Raphael, who is famous for his smooth style, perfect balance, and mastery of perspective. One of his biggest works is The School of Athens, a huge painting on a Vatican wall that shows all the top ancient Greek philosophers and scientists hanging out together.