Gaius Julius Caesar

Julius Caesar was a Roman general and statesman who played a critical role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire.

Early Life and Rise to Power

• 100 BC: Born in Rome into a prestigious but relatively impoverished patrician family.
• 84 BC: Appointed High Priest of Jupiter (Flamen Dialis) by his uncle-in-law, Gaius Marius.

Ascent to Power

• 63 BC: Elected Pontifex Maximus (High Priest of Rome), a position he held for life.
• 60 BC: Formed the First Triumvirate, an informal political alliance with the wealthy Marcus Licinius Crassus and the general Pompey.
• 59 BC: Served his first term as Consul, Rome’s highest political office.

Assassination

• 44 BC: Caesar was assassinated in the Theatre of Pompey by a group of rebellious senators on the Ides of March.

Why did Tiberius Gracchus attract so much suspicion from the Roman Senate?

Tiberius Gracchus was a Roman veteran who was elected as a plebeian tribune in 133 B.C. He recognized the need to provide land for other veterans, as many had sold their farms after returning home. Their fields had been neglected and ravaged while they were away, making them difficult to restore to productivity. As a result, many veterans sold their land, expecting to continue serving in the army; however, the Roman army no longer accepted landless men.

Tiberius proposed a land redistribution program in which unused excess land would be taken by the Roman government and redistributed to citizens without land. In doing so, he bypassed the Roman Senate, breaking tradition. Although the Concilium Plebis passed the law and the Senate later approved it, the Senate refused to fund the program. When Tiberius ran for reelection, again defying tradition, violence broke out during the election. He raised his hand to his head as a signal of danger, but it was mistaken as a sign that he sought a crown. This misunderstanding led to a revolt, which ended in Tiberius dying.

1. What is the difference between the liberty of the ancients and the liberty of the moderns? What would moderns find lacking in ancient liberty?

The liberty of the ancients includes collective political power exercised through direct participation in public decision-making. Citizens expressed freedom through assemblies, voting, and shared sovereignty, believing liberty meant being an active member of the community. Modern liberty focuses on individual rights, such as freedom of expression, religion, property, and personal independence. It emphasizes private pursuits, personal autonomy, and protection from government intrusion, relying on representative government rather than direct political participation. Modern people would find ancient liberty lacking because it offers little personal freedom or privacy and demands heavy involvement in public life.

2. Plutarch tells about an important episode in Alexander’s life. What characteristics is it intended to show?

Plutarch’s Life of Alexander includes the famous episode of Alexander taming Bucephalus. When the wild horse refused all riders, Alexander realized it feared its own shadow. He turned the horse toward the sun, calmed it, and mounted it successfully. Philip II told him that Macedonia was too small for someone of his greatness. The episode is meant to show Alexander’s intelligence, perception, confidence, courage, and natural authority. It also highlights his emotional control, as he mastered Bucephalus through understanding rather than force. Plutarch uses this story to foreshadow Alexander’s future leadership, ambition, and military brilliance.

What does the fate of Medea and of those who mistreat and oppress her say to its own time?

Medea is an ancient Greek play written by the playwright Euripides and was first performed in 431 BC. The play premiered during a pivotal moment in Greek history: the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War, a conflict between Athens—then at the height of its imperial power—and Sparta and its allies. Because of this timing, historians often interpret Medea as reflecting anxieties about imperialism, justice, and the treatment of foreigners within the Athenian empire.

In 431 BC, Athens controlled a wide-ranging maritime empire and dominated numerous allied states through military force. While Athenians celebrated democracy at home, many subject states viewed Athens as authoritarian.

Why was the Peloponnesian War fought? What was its long-term significance? and What points is Pericles trying to make about Athens in his Funeral Oration?

The Peloponnesian War was fought because, after the Persian Wars, Athens became powerful, using its navy to dominate its allies and build an empire. Sparta, fearing Athens’ growing influence, eventually decided to go to war.

The war ended with Sparta’s victory, but all of Greece was left weakened. It destroyed Athenian naval dominance, drained resources, and shattered unity among the Greek city-states.

In Pericles’ Funeral Oration, he praises Athens and its citizens. His speech serves as both a eulogy for the fallen and a celebration of Athenian democracy.

Some key points Pericles makes include:

• Athens is a model city, admired by others.
• Athens is a democracy, giving power to the people.
• Athenians advance based on ability and merit, not birth or social rank.