How would you compare the teachings of Christianity, as described in the New Testament passages we read for this week, to the values cherished by earlier civilizations we have discussed (particularly the Greeks, and the values expressed in Homer’s works)? Conversely, can you see anything in common between Christianity and some of the great ancient thinkers we have discussed?

Christianity, as described in the New Testament, teaches good values such as the Ten Commandments, loving your neighbor regardless of their religion, and focusing on inward growth. These teachings emphasize a person’s inner character and moral development. Homer’s values, on the other hand, focus more on outward behavior, such as strength, honor, glory, and heroic achievement.

There are also differences in religious beliefs. Both Christianity and Greek religion believe in at least one god; however, the Greeks believe in many gods, such as Zeus, while Christianity believes in only one God who created the earth and everything in it.

Despite these differences, Christianity and Greek religion are similar in that both have good core values and encourage good behavior.

According to Seneca, what is man’s unique good? How should a good man conduct himself?

Seneca, the Roman Stoic philosopher, argued that virtue is man’s unique and highest good. Unlike wealth or power, which depend on chance, virtue is fully under human control and is the only true path to happiness. A good man should live in accordance with nature and reason, remaining calm in both success and hardship. He should be self-disciplined, act morally regardless of rewards, and accept fate with composure.

Why do historians tend to look with favor on the period of the Five Good Emperors? What differences do you observe between that period and the period from the death of Augustus through the death of Domitian?

Historians view the reign of the Five Good Emperors favorably because it was a time of peace, stability, and economic prosperity across the Roman Empire. Emperors were usually chosen through adoption based on merit, which led to capable and effective leadership. In contrast, the period from the death of Augustus to the death of Domitian was marked by political instability, tyrannical rulers, succession crises, and frequent political violence.

Gaius Julius Caesar

Julius Caesar was a Roman general and statesman who played a critical role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire.

Early Life and Rise to Power

• 100 BC: Born in Rome into a prestigious but relatively impoverished patrician family.
• 84 BC: Appointed High Priest of Jupiter (Flamen Dialis) by his uncle-in-law, Gaius Marius.

Ascent to Power

• 63 BC: Elected Pontifex Maximus (High Priest of Rome), a position he held for life.
• 60 BC: Formed the First Triumvirate, an informal political alliance with the wealthy Marcus Licinius Crassus and the general Pompey.
• 59 BC: Served his first term as Consul, Rome’s highest political office.

Assassination

• 44 BC: Caesar was assassinated in the Theatre of Pompey by a group of rebellious senators on the Ides of March.

Why did Tiberius Gracchus attract so much suspicion from the Roman Senate?

Tiberius Gracchus was a Roman veteran who was elected as a plebeian tribune in 133 B.C. He recognized the need to provide land for other veterans, as many had sold their farms after returning home. Their fields had been neglected and ravaged while they were away, making them difficult to restore to productivity. As a result, many veterans sold their land, expecting to continue serving in the army; however, the Roman army no longer accepted landless men.

Tiberius proposed a land redistribution program in which unused excess land would be taken by the Roman government and redistributed to citizens without land. In doing so, he bypassed the Roman Senate, breaking tradition. Although the Concilium Plebis passed the law and the Senate later approved it, the Senate refused to fund the program. When Tiberius ran for reelection, again defying tradition, violence broke out during the election. He raised his hand to his head as a signal of danger, but it was mistaken as a sign that he sought a crown. This misunderstanding led to a revolt, which ended in Tiberius dying.

1. What is the difference between the liberty of the ancients and the liberty of the moderns? What would moderns find lacking in ancient liberty?

The liberty of the ancients includes collective political power exercised through direct participation in public decision-making. Citizens expressed freedom through assemblies, voting, and shared sovereignty, believing liberty meant being an active member of the community. Modern liberty focuses on individual rights, such as freedom of expression, religion, property, and personal independence. It emphasizes private pursuits, personal autonomy, and protection from government intrusion, relying on representative government rather than direct political participation. Modern people would find ancient liberty lacking because it offers little personal freedom or privacy and demands heavy involvement in public life.

2. Plutarch tells about an important episode in Alexander’s life. What characteristics is it intended to show?

Plutarch’s Life of Alexander includes the famous episode of Alexander taming Bucephalus. When the wild horse refused all riders, Alexander realized it feared its own shadow. He turned the horse toward the sun, calmed it, and mounted it successfully. Philip II told him that Macedonia was too small for someone of his greatness. The episode is meant to show Alexander’s intelligence, perception, confidence, courage, and natural authority. It also highlights his emotional control, as he mastered Bucephalus through understanding rather than force. Plutarch uses this story to foreshadow Alexander’s future leadership, ambition, and military brilliance.